tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-76450753290160382252024-03-13T13:35:25.191-07:00ChemistryIncludes Syllabus Of MSc Chemistry of Tribhuvan universityRobinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.comBlogger19125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-64037667512497101522009-09-13T02:32:00.000-07:002009-09-13T02:37:38.357-07:00JokesTwo atoms are walking down the street.<br />Says one atom to the other, "Hey! I think I lost an electron!"<br />The other says, "Are you sure??"<br />"Yes, I'm positive!"<br /><br /><br /> Neutron walks into a restaurant and orders a couple of cokes.<br />As she is about to leave, she asks the waiter how much she owes.<br /> The waiter replies, "For you, No Charge!!!"<br /><br />What weapon can you make from the elements potassium, nickel and iron? A KNiFe<br /><br />If H20 is water what is H204? Drinking, bathing, washing, swimming<br /><br />A small piece of ice which lived in a test tube fell in love with a Bunsen burner. "Bunsen! my flame! I melt whenever I see you" said the ice. The Bunsen burner replied :"It's just a phase you're going through".Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-22239875460798820412009-09-13T02:22:00.000-07:002009-09-13T04:43:31.065-07:00Chemistry JokesQ: What is the chemical formula for the molecules in candy?<br />A: Carbon-Holmium-Cobalt-Lanthanum-Tellurium or CHoCoLaT<br /><br />Q: What is the name of the molecule CH2O?<br />A: SeawaterRobinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-51225636777125616982009-09-11T06:41:00.001-07:002009-09-11T06:42:45.082-07:00Carbon Cycle<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_P050nRnEKOo/SqpTvVdD8YI/AAAAAAAAABw/MgKC6hzRg_E/s1600-h/Map-Types.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5380204777525473666" style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px 10px; WIDTH: 320px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 232px" alt="" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_P050nRnEKOo/SqpTvVdD8YI/AAAAAAAAABw/MgKC6hzRg_E/s320/Map-Types.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><div></div>Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-20961575086156766072009-09-11T03:35:00.000-07:002009-09-11T03:39:47.266-07:00Explosive Chemicals - How Dangerous are They?<span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> Many people have a natural fear of chemicals that catch fire easily. </span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">In fact, I know of some people who became so nervous whenever</span><br /><div align="left"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> they have to come into the chemical areas that they lost their concentration </span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">and fumble about with their activities, visibly shaken. It is as if the whole </span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">place is going to explode in their faces anytime. However, if this natural</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> fear is allowed to paralyze us, there will not be any oil refinery, oil wells </span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">or even petrol stations anywhere. Industrial processes will <span class="blsp-spelling-corrected" id="SPELLING_ERROR_0">literally</span> grind</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> to a halt. People will be so afraid to handle these chemicals in their work.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> This article tries to eliminate this natural fear by explaining the properties</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> of flammable chemicals so that people will treat flammable chemicals with </span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">respect but not with fear.</span> </div>Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-77114888444403324532009-09-11T03:09:00.000-07:002009-09-11T03:31:09.618-07:00Water SoftnerWater softener can be termed as a type of <a href="http://www.buzzle.com/articles/water-filters/">water filter</a>, that helps to remove excess calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate and sulfate ions from water. This helps to eliminate the hardness of water and to avoid the common problems associated with hard water. This is achieved by replacing the calcium and magnesium ions of hard water with sodium ions, which do not precipitate like calcium ions, to clog tubes and pipes. They also do not form the sticky scum with soaps and detergent and hence makes washing less troublesome. Now let's have a look at how do water softeners work?Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-52167930562462554702009-09-10T03:35:00.000-07:002009-09-10T03:43:50.904-07:00FlourinationFluorination gets a good reaction<br /><br />European chemists have found that using fluorinated solvents in olefin metathesis reactions substantially improves the product yields obtained.<br />The metathesis reactions of alkenes (olefins) form a vital part of the armoury of transformations available to synthetic organic chemists. They provide a way of breaking and remaking carbon-carbon double bonds - allowing the substituent groups to be swapped - and are usually catalysed by transition metal complexes.<br />Commercially available catalysts, such as Grubbs', remain popular among chemists but are often ineffective in more difficult reactions like the multi-step total synthesis of natural products and biologically active molecules.<br /><br />Commercially available catalysts remain popular among chemists but are often ineffective in more difficult reactions<br /><br />Karol Grela, Polish Academy of Science, Warsaw, Poland, and colleagues have found that the yields of reactions using these catalysts can be dramatically improved by using fluorinated aromatic hydrocarbon solvents.<br />In particular, he reports that it is 'possible to increase the metathesis reaction yield by up to 18-times, only by changing the solvent from 1,2-dichloroethane to perfluorotoluene.'<br />Jie Wu, professor of chemistry at Fudan University, Shanghai, China, adds: 'This is an excellent improvement in metathesis reactions, which will find applications in the synthesis of advanced natural and biologically active compounds.'<br />Grela says that uncovering the nature of this effect and improving the recycling efficiency of the valuable catalysts - to satisfy the guidelines of green chemistry - are the next steps in his work.<br />David ParkerRobinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-55594497228365352622009-09-10T03:17:00.000-07:002009-09-10T03:21:56.843-07:00Nobel Price In Chemistry<table border="0"><tbody><tr><td><!--2008--><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/2008-prizes.html">2008</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize goes to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2008a.html"><strong>O<span style="font-size:-1;">SAMU</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">HIMOMURA</span></strong></a>, <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2008b.html"><strong>M<span style="font-size:-1;">ARTIN</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">HALFIE</span></strong></a>, and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2008c.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">OGER</span> Y T<span style="font-size:-1;">SIEN</span></strong></a> for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><!--2007--><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/2007-prizes.html">2007</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize goes to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2007a.html"><strong>G<span style="font-size:-1;">ERHARD</span> E<span style="font-size:-1;">RTL</span></strong></a> for his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><!--2006--><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/2006-prizes.html">2006</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize goes to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2006a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">OGER</span> D. K<span style="font-size:-1;">ORNBERG</span></strong></a> for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><!--2005--><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/2005-prizes.html">2005</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize is being awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2005a.html"><strong>Y<span style="font-size:-1;">VES</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">HAUVIN</span></strong></a>, <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2005b.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">OBERT</span> H. G<span style="font-size:-1;">RUBBS</span></strong> </a>, and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2005c.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHARD</span> R. S<span style="font-size:-1;">CHROCK</span></strong></a> for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><!--2004--><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/2004-prizes.html">2004</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize is being awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2004a.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">ARON</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">IECHANOVER</span></strong></a>, <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2004b.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">VRAM</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ERSHKO</span></strong> </a>, and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2004c.html"><strong>I<span style="font-size:-1;">RWIN</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">OSE</span></strong></a> for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><!--2003--><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/2003-prizes.html">2003</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize is being awarded <p>for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes <p>with one half of the prize to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2003a.html"><strong>P<span style="font-size:-1;">ETER</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">GRE</span></strong></a>, for the discovery of water channels <p>and the other half of the prize to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2003b.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">ODERICK</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">AC</span>K<span style="font-size:-1;">INNON</span></strong> </a>for structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><!--2002--><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/2002-prizes.html">2002</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize is being awarded <p>for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules <p>with one half jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2002a.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHN</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">ENN</span></strong></a>, and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2002b.html"><strong>K<span style="font-size:-1;">OICHI</span> T<span style="font-size:-1;">ANAKA</span></strong></a>, for their development of soft desorption ionisation methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological macromolecules <p>and the other half to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2002c.html"><strong>K<span style="font-size:-1;">URT</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ÜTHRICH</span></strong> </a>for his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><!--2001--><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/2001-prizes.html">2001</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize is being awarded with one half jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2001a.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLIAM</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> K<span style="font-size:-1;">NOWLES</span></strong></a>, and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2001b.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">YOJI</span> N<span style="font-size:-1;">OYORI</span></strong></a>, for their work on chirally catalysed hydrogenation reactions <p>and the other half to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2001c.html"><strong>K<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">ARRY</span> S<span>HARPLESS</span></strong> </a>for his work on chirally catalysed oxidation reactions. <!--2000--><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/2000-prizes.html">2000</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize is being awarded with one half jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2000a.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">LAN</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">EEGER</span></strong></a>, <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2000b.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">LAN</span> G<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">AC</span>D<span style="font-size:-1;">IARMID</span></strong></a>, and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/2000c.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">IDEKI</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">HIRAKAWA</span></strong> </a>for the discovery and development of conductive polymers. <!--1999--><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/1999-prizes.html">1999</a></span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1999a.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">HMED</span> Z<span style="font-size:-1;">EWAIL</span></strong></a> for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/1998-prizes.html">1998</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded for pioneering contributions in developing methods that can be used for theoretical studies of the properties of molecules and the chemical processes in which they are involved. The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1998a.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ALTER</span> K<span style="font-size:-1;">OHN</span></strong></a> for his development of the density-functional theory <p>and <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1998b.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHN</span> A. P<span style="font-size:-1;">OPLE</span></strong></a> for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry.<br /><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/1997-prizes.html">1997</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided, one half being awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1997a.html"><strong>P<span style="font-size:-1;">AUL</span> D. B<span style="font-size:-1;">OYER</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1997b.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHN</span> E. W<span style="font-size:-1;">ALKER</span></strong></a> for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) <p>and with one half to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1997c.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">ENS</span> C. S<span style="font-size:-1;">KOU</span></strong></a> for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na<sup><span style="font-size:85%;">+</span></sup>, K<sup><span style="font-size:85%;">+</span></sup>-ATPase. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/1996-prizes.html">1996</a></span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1996a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">OBERT</span> F. C<span style="font-size:-1;">URL,</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">r.</span></strong></a> , <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1996b.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">AROLD</span> W. K<span style="font-size:-1;">ROTO</span></strong></a> , and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1996c.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHARD</span> E. S<span style="font-size:-1;">MALLEY</span></strong></a> for their discovery of fullerenes. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;"><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/1995-prizes.html">1995</a></span></tt></b> <p>The <a href="http://www.nobel.se/announcement95-chemistry.html">prize</a> was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1995a.html"><strong>P<span style="font-size:-1;">AUL</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">RUTZEN</span></strong></a> , <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1995b.html"><strong>M<span style="font-size:-1;">ARIO</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">OLINA</span></strong></a> , and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1995c.html"><strong>F<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">HERWOOD</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">OWLAND</span></strong></a> for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone.<br /><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1994</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1994a.html"><strong>G<span style="font-size:-1;">EORGE</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> O<span style="font-size:-1;">LAH</span></strong></a> for his contribution to carbocation chemistry. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1993</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1993a.html"><strong>K<span style="font-size:-1;">ARY</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ULLIS</span></strong></a> for his invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. <p>and <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1993b.html"><strong>M<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHAEL</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">MITH</span></strong></a> for his fundamental contributions to the establishment of oligonucleiotide-based, site-directed mutagenesis and its development for protein studies.<br /><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1992</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1992a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">UDOLPH</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ARCUS</span></strong></a> for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems. <p><br /><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1991</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1991a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHARD</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> E<span style="font-size:-1;">RNST</span></strong></a> for his contributions to the development of the methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1990</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1990a.html"><strong>E<span style="font-size:-1;">LIAS</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">AMES</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">OREY</span></strong></a> for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis. <p><br /><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1989</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1989a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IDNEY</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">LTMAN</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1989b.html"><strong>T<span style="font-size:-1;">HOMAS</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">ECH</span></strong></a> for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1988</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1988a.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHANN</span> D<span style="font-size:-1;">EISENHOFER</span></strong></a> , <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1988b.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">OBERT</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">UBER</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1988c.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">ARTMUT</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHEL</span></strong></a> for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1987</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1987a.html"><strong>D<span style="font-size:-1;">ONALD</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">RAM</span></strong></a> , <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1987b.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">EAN</span>-M<span style="font-size:-1;">ARIE</span> L<span style="font-size:-1;">EHN</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1987c.html"><strong>C<span style="font-size:-1;">HARLES</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">EDERSEN</span></strong></a> <p>for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1986</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1986a.html"><strong>D<span style="font-size:-1;">UDLEY</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ERSCHBACH</span></strong></a> , <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1986b.html"><strong>Y<span style="font-size:-1;">UAN</span> T<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> L<span style="font-size:-1;">EE</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1986c.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHN</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">OLANYI</span></strong></a> for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1985</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1985a.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">ERBERT</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">AUPTMAN</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1985b.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">EROME</span> K<span style="font-size:-1;">ARLE</span></strong></a> for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1984</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1984a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">OBERT</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">RUCE</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ERRIFIELD</span></strong></a> for his development of methodology for chemical synthesis on a solid matrix. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1983</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1983a.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">ENRY</span> T<span style="font-size:-1;">AUBE</span></strong></a> for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions, especially in metal complexes. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1982</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1982a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">ARON</span> K<span style="font-size:-1;">LUG</span></strong></a> for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nuclei acid-protein complexes. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1981</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1981a.html"><strong>K<span style="font-size:-1;">ENICHI</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">UKUI</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1981b.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">OALD</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">OFFMANN</span></strong></a> for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1980</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided, one half being awarded to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1980a.html"><strong>P<span style="font-size:-1;">AUL</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">ERG</span></strong></a> for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA <p>and the other half jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1980b.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ALTER</span> G<span style="font-size:-1;">ILBERT</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1980c.html"><strong>F<span style="font-size:-1;">REDERICK</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">ANGER</span></strong></a> for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1979</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1979a.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">ERBERT</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">ROWN</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1979b.html"><strong>G<span style="font-size:-1;">EORG</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ITTIG</span></strong></a> for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into important reagents in organic synthesis. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1978</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1978a.html"><strong>P<span style="font-size:-1;">ETER</span> D<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ITCHELL</span></strong></a> for his contribution to the understanding of biological energy transfer through the formulation of the chemiosmotic theory. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1977</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1977a.html"><strong>I<span style="font-size:-1;">LYA</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">RIGOGINE</span></strong></a> for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1976</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1976a.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLIAM</span> N<span style="font-size:-1;">..</span> L<span style="font-size:-1;">IPSCOMB</span></strong></a> for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1975</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1975a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHN</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ARCUP</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">ORNFORTH</span></strong></a> for his work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions<br /><p>and <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1975b.html"><strong>V<span style="font-size:-1;">LADIMIR</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">RELOG</span></strong></a> for his research into the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reactions. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1974</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1974a.html"><strong>P<span style="font-size:-1;">AUL</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">LORY</span></strong></a> for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of the macromolecules. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1973</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1973a.html"><strong>E<span style="font-size:-1;">RNST</span> O<span style="font-size:-1;">TTO</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">ISCHER</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1973b.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> G<span style="font-size:-1;">EOFFREY</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILKINSON</span></strong></a> for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1972</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided, one half being awarded to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1972a.html"><strong>C<span style="font-size:-1;">HRISTIAN</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">NFINSEN</span></strong></a> for his work on ribonuclease, especially concerning the connection between the amino acid sequence and the biologically active confirmation <p>and the other half jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1972b.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">TANFORD</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">OORE</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1972c.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLIAM</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">TEIN</span></strong></a> for their contribution to the understanding of the connection between chemical structure and catalytic activity of the active centre of the ribonuclease molecule. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1971</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1971a.html"><strong>G<span style="font-size:-1;">ERHARD</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ERZBERG</span></strong></a> for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic stucture and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1970</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1970a.html"><strong>L<span style="font-size:-1;">UIS</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> L<span style="font-size:-1;">ELOIR</span></strong></a> for his discovery of sugar nucleotides and their role in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1969</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1969a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> D<span style="font-size:-1;">EREK</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">ARTON</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1969b.html"><strong>O<span style="font-size:-1;">DD</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ASSEL</span></strong></a> for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1968</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1968a.html"><strong>L<span style="font-size:-1;">ARS</span> O<span style="font-size:-1;">NSAGER</span></strong></a> for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1967</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided, one half being awarded to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1967a.html"><strong>M<span style="font-size:-1;">ANFRED</span> E<span style="font-size:-1;">IGEN</span></strong></a> <p>and the other half jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1967b.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">ONALD</span> G<span style="font-size:-1;">EORGE</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">REYFORD</span> N<span style="font-size:-1;">ORRISH</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1967c.html"><strong>L<span style="font-size:-1;">ORD</span> G<span style="font-size:-1;">EORGE</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">ORTER</span></strong></a> for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equlibrium by means of very short pulses of energy. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1966</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1966a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">OBERT</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ULLIKEN</span></strong></a> for his fundamental work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1965</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1965a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">OBERT</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">URNS</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">OODWARD</span></strong></a> for his outstanding achievements in the art of organic synthesis. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1964</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1964a.html"><strong>D<span style="font-size:-1;">OROTHY</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">ROWFOOT</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ODGKIN</span></strong></a> for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1963</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1963a.html"><strong>K<span style="font-size:-1;">ARL</span> Z<span style="font-size:-1;">IEGLER</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1963b.html"><strong>G<span style="font-size:-1;">IULIO</span> N<span style="font-size:-1;">ATTA</span></strong></a> for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1962</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1962a.html"><strong>M<span style="font-size:-1;">AX</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">ERDINAND</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">ERUTZ</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1962b.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHN</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">OWDERY</span> K<span style="font-size:-1;">ENDREW</span></strong></a> for their studies of the structures of globular proteins. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1961</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1961a.html"><strong>M<span style="font-size:-1;">ELVIN</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">ALVIN</span></strong></a> for his research on the carbon dioxide assimilation in plants. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1960</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1960a.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLARD</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">RANK</span> L<span style="font-size:-1;">IBBY</span></strong></a> for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1959</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1959a.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">AROSLAV</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">EYROVSKY</span></strong></a> for his discovery and development of the polarographic methods of analysis. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1958</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1958a.html"><strong>F<span style="font-size:-1;">REDERICK</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">ANGER</span></strong></a> for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1957</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1957a.html"><strong>L<span style="font-size:-1;">ORD</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">LEXANDER</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">.</span> T<span style="font-size:-1;">ODD</span></strong></a> for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1956</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1956a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">YRIL</span> N<span style="font-size:-1;">ORMAN</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">INSHELWOOD</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1956b.html"><strong>N<span style="font-size:-1;">IKOLAY</span> N<span style="font-size:-1;">IKOLAEVICH</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">EMENOV</span> </strong></a>for their researches into the mechanism of chemical reactions. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1955</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1955a.html"><strong>V<span style="font-size:-1;">INCENT</span> D<span style="font-size:-1;">U</span> V<span style="font-size:-1;">IGNEAUD</span></strong></a> for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1954</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1954a.html"><strong>L<span style="font-size:-1;">INUS</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">ARL</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">AULING</span></strong></a> for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1953</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1953a.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">ERMANN</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">TAUDINGER</span></strong></a> for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1952</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1952a.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">RCHER</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHN</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">ORTER</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ARTIN</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1952b.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHARD</span> L<span style="font-size:-1;">AURENCE</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLINGTON</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">YNGE</span></strong></a> for their invention of partition chromatography. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1951</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1951a.html"><strong>E<span style="font-size:-1;">DWIN</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ATTISON</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">C</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLAN</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1951b.html"><strong>G<span style="font-size:-1;">LENN</span> T<span style="font-size:-1;">HEODORE</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">EABORG</span></strong></a> for their discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1950</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1950a.html"><strong>O<span style="font-size:-1;">TTO</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">AUL</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ERMANN</span> D<span style="font-size:-1;">IELS</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1950b.html"><strong>K<span style="font-size:-1;">URT</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">LDER</span></strong></a> for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1949</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1949a.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLIAM</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">RANCIS</span> G<span style="font-size:-1;">IAUQUE</span></strong></a> for his contributions in the field of chemical thermodynamics, particularly concerning the behaviour of substances at extremely low temperatures. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1948</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1948a.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">RNE</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILHELM</span> K<span style="font-size:-1;">AURIN</span> T<span style="font-size:-1;">ISELIUS</span></strong></a> for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis, especially for his discoveries concerning the complex nature of the serum proteins. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1947</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1947a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">OBERT</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">OBINSON</span></strong></a> for his investigations on plant products of biological importance, especially the alkaloids. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1946</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided, one half being awarded to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1946a.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">AMES</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">ATCHELLER</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">UMNER</span></strong></a> for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized. <p>the other half jointly to <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1946b.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHN</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">OWARD</span> N<span style="font-size:-1;">ORTHROP</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1946c.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ENDELL</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">EREDITH</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">TANLEY</span></strong></a> for their preparation of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure form. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1945</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1945a.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">RTTURI</span> I<span style="font-size:-1;">LMARI</span> V<span style="font-size:-1;">IRTANEN</span></strong></a> for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1944</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1944a.html"><strong>O<span style="font-size:-1;">TTO</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">AHN</span></strong></a> for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1943</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1943a.html"><strong>G<span style="font-size:-1;">EORGE</span> D<span style="font-size:-1;">E</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">EVESY</span></strong></a> for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><h2>1942-1940</h2>The prize money was allocated to the Main Fund (1/3) and to the Special Fund (2/3) of this prize section.<br /><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1939</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1939a.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">DOLF</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">RIEDRICH</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHANN</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">UTENANDT</span></strong></a> for his work on sex hormones. (Caused by the authorities of his country to decline the award but later received the diploma and the medal). <p>and <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1939b.html"><strong>L<span style="font-size:-1;">EOPOLD</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">UZICKA</span> </strong></a>for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1938</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1938a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHARD</span> K<span style="font-size:-1;">UHN</span></strong></a> for his work on carotenoids and vitamins. (Caused by the authorities of his country to decline the award but later received the diploma and the medal.) <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1937</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1937a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ALTER</span> N<span style="font-size:-1;">ORMAN</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">AWORTH</span></strong></a> for his investigations on carbohydrates and vitamin C. <p>and <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1937b.html"><strong>P<span style="font-size:-1;">AUL</span> K<span style="font-size:-1;">ARRER</span></strong></a> for his investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1936</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1936a.html"><strong>P<span style="font-size:-1;">ETRUS</span> (P<span style="font-size:-1;">ETER</span>) J<span style="font-size:-1;">OSEPHUS</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILHELMUS</span> D<span style="font-size:-1;">EBYE</span></strong></a> for his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1935</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1935a.html"><strong>F<span style="font-size:-1;">RÉDÉRIC</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">OLIOT</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1935b.html"><strong>I<span style="font-size:-1;">RÈNE</span> J<span style="font-size:-1;">OLIOT-CURIE</span></strong></a> in recognition of their synthesis of new radioactive elements. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1934</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1934a.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">AROLD</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">LAYTON</span> U<span style="font-size:-1;">REY</span></strong></a> for his discovery of heavy hydrogen. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1933</span></tt></b> <p>The prize money was allocated to the Main Fund (1/3) and to the Special Fund (2/3) of this prize section.<br /><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1932</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1932a.html"><strong>I<span style="font-size:-1;">RVING</span> L<span style="font-size:-1;">ANGMUIR</span></strong></a> for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1931</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was awarded jointly to: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1931a.html"><strong>C<span style="font-size:-1;">ARL</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">OSCH</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1931b.html"><strong>F<span style="font-size:-1;">RIEDRICH</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">ERGIUS</span></strong></a> in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1930</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1930a.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">ANS</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">ISCHER</span></strong></a> for his researches into the constitution of haemin and chlorophyll and especially for his synthesis of haemin. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1929</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1929a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">RTHUR</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ARDEN</span></strong></a> and <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1929b.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">ANS</span> K<span style="font-size:-1;">ARL</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">UGUST</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">IMON</span> V<span style="font-size:-1;">ON</span> E<span style="font-size:-1;">ULER</span>-C<span style="font-size:-1;">HELPIN</span></strong></a> for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1928</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1928a.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">DOLF</span> O<span style="font-size:-1;">TTO</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">EINHOLD</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">INDAUS</span></strong></a> for the services rendered through his research into the constitution of the sterols and their connection with the vitamins. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1927</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1927a.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">EINRICH</span> O<span style="font-size:-1;">TTO</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">IELAND</span></strong></a> for his investigations of the constitution of the bile acids and related substances. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1926</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1926a.html"><strong>T<span style="font-size:-1;">HE</span> (T<span style="font-size:-1;">HEODOR</span>) S<span style="font-size:-1;">VEDBERG</span></strong></a> for his work on disperse systems. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1925</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1925a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHARD</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">DOLF</span> Z<span style="font-size:-1;">SIGMONDY</span></strong></a> for his demonstration of the heterogenous nature of colloid solutions and for the methods he used, which have since become fundamental in modern colloid chemistry. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1924</span></tt></b> <p>The prize money for 1924 was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1923</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1923a.html"><strong>F<span style="font-size:-1;">RITZ</span> P<span style="font-size:-1;">REGL</span></strong></a> for his invention of the method of micro-analysis of organic substances. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1922</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1922a.html"><strong>F<span style="font-size:-1;">RANCIS</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLIAM</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">STON</span></strong></a> for his discovery, by means of his mass spectrograph, of isotopes, in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole-number rule. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1921</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1921a.html"><strong>F<span style="font-size:-1;">REDERICK</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">ODDY</span></strong></a> , for his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1920</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1920a.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ALTHER</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ERMANN</span> N<span style="font-size:-1;">ERNST</span></strong></a> in recognition of his work in thermochemistry. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1919</span></tt></b> <p>The prize money for 1919 was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1918</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1918a.html"><strong>F<span style="font-size:-1;">RITZ</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ABER</span></strong></a> for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements. <p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><h2>1917-1916</h2>The prize money for 1917-1916 was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.<br /><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1915</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1915a.html"><strong>R<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHARD</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">ARTIN</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLSTÄTTER</span></strong></a> for his researches on plant pigments, especially chlorophyll. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1914</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1914a.html"><strong>T<span style="font-size:-1;">HEODORE</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLIAM</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">ICHARDS</span></strong></a> , in recognition of his accurate determinations of the atomic weight of a large number of chemical elements. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1913</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1913a.html"><strong>A<span style="font-size:-1;">LFRED</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ERNER</span></strong></a> in recognition of his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules by which he has thrown new light on earlier investigations and opened up new fields of research especially in inorganic chemistry. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1912</span></tt></b> <p>The prize was divided equally between: <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1912a.html"><strong>V<span style="font-size:-1;">ICTOR</span> G<span style="font-size:-1;">RIGNARD</span></strong></a> for the discovery of the so-called Grignard reagent, which in recent years has greatly advanced the progress of organic chemistry <p>and <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1912b.html"><strong>P<span style="font-size:-1;">AUL</span> S<span style="font-size:-1;">ABATIER</span></strong></a> for his method of hydrogenating organic compounds in the presence of finely disintegrated metals whereby the progress of organic chemistry has been greatly advanced in recent years. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1911</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1911a.html"><strong>M<span style="font-size:-1;">ARIE</span> C<span style="font-size:-1;">URIE</span></strong></a>, née Marie Sklodowska, <a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1911b.html"><strong></strong></a>in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1910</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1910a.html"><strong>O<span style="font-size:-1;">TTO</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ALLACH</span></strong></a> in recognition of his services to organic chemistry and the chemical industry by his pioneer work in the field of alicyclic compounds. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1909</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1909a.html"><strong>W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILHELM</span> O<span style="font-size:-1;">STWALD</span></strong></a> in recognition of his work on catalysis and for his investigations into the fundamental principles governing chemical equilibria and rates of reaction. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1908</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1908a.html"><strong>L<span style="font-size:-1;">ORD</span> E<span style="font-size:-1;">RNEST</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">UTHERFORD</span></strong></a> for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1907</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1907a.html"><strong>E<span style="font-size:-1;">DUARD</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">UCHNER</span></strong></a> for his biochemical researches and his discovery of cellfree fermentation. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1906</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1906a.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">ENRI</span> M<span style="font-size:-1;">OISSAN</span></strong></a> in recognition of the great services rendered by him in his investigation and isolation of the element fluorine, and for the adoption in the service of science of the electric furnace called after him. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1905</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1905a.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">OHANN</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">RIEDRICH</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILHELM</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">DOLF</span> V<span style="font-size:-1;">ON</span> B<span style="font-size:-1;">AEYER</span></strong></a> in recognition of his services in the advancement of organic chemistry and the chemical industry, through his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1904</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1904a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">IR</span> W<span style="font-size:-1;">ILLIAM</span> R<span style="font-size:-1;">AMSAY</span></strong></a> in recognition of his services in the discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air, and his determination of their place in the periodic system. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1903</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1903a.html"><strong>S<span style="font-size:-1;">VANTE</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">UGUST</span> A<span style="font-size:-1;">RRHENIUS</span></strong></a> in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1902</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1902a.html"><strong>H<span style="font-size:-1;">ERMANN</span> E<span style="font-size:-1;">MIL</span> F<span style="font-size:-1;">ISCHER</span></strong></a> in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his work on sugar and purine syntheses. <p><p><center><img alt="" src="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/images/ruler.gif" border="0" /> </center><b><tt><span style="font-size:+3;">1901</span></tt></b> <p><a href="http://almaz.com/nobel/chemistry/1901a.html"><strong>J<span style="font-size:-1;">ACOBUS</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">ENRICUS</span> V<span style="font-size:-1;">AN'T</span> H<span style="font-size:-1;">OFF</span></strong></a> in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions.</p></td></tr></tbody></table>Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-71924969140296193192009-09-10T01:34:00.000-07:002009-09-10T01:52:20.856-07:00IntroductionChemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry which addresses the question: "how fast do reactions go?" Chemistry can be thought of, at the simplest level, as the science that concerns itself with making new substances from other substances. Or, one could say, chemistry is taking molecules apart and putting the atoms and fragments back together to form new molecules. (OK, so once in a while one uses atoms or gets atoms, but that doesn't change the argument.) All of this is to say that chemical reactions are the core of chemistry.<br /><br />If Chemistry is making new substances out of old substances (i.e., chemical reactions), then there are two basic questions that must be answered:<br />1. Does the reaction want to go? This is the subject of chemical thermodynamics.<br />2. If the reaction wants to go, how fast will it go? This is the subject of chemical kinetics.Here are some examples. Consider the reaction,<br />2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l).We can calculate ΔrGo for this reaction from tables of free energies of formation (actually this one is just twice the free energy of formation of liquid water). We find that ΔrGo for this reaction is very large and negative, which means that the reaction wants to go very strongly. A more scientific way to say this would be to say that the equilibrium constant for this reaction is very very large.<br /><br />However, we can mix hydrogen gas and oxygen gas together in a bulb or other container, even in their correct stoichiometric proportions, and they will stay there for centuries, perhaps even forever, without reacting. (If we drop in a catalyst - say a tiny piece of platinum - or introduce a spark, or even illuminate the mixture with sufficiently high frequency uv light, or compress and heat the mixture, the mixture will explode.) The problem is not that the reactants do not want to form the products, they do, but they cannot find a "pathway" to get from reactants to products.<br />Another example: consider the reaction,<br />C(diamond) → C(graphite).If you calculate ΔrGo for this reaction from data in the tables of thermodynamic properties you will find once again that it is negative (not very large, but still negative). This result tells us that diamonds are thermodynamically unstable. Yet diamonds are highly regarded as gem stones ("diamonds are forever") and are considered by some financial advisors as a good long-term investment hedge against inflation. On the other hand, if you were to vaporize a diamond in a furnace, under an inert atmosphere, and then condense the vapor, the carbon would come back as graphite and not as diamond.<br />How can all these things be?<br /><br />The answer is that thermodynamics is not the whole story in chemistry. Not only do we have to know whether a reaction is thermodynamically favored, we also have to know whether the reaction canChemical Kinetics - Reaction Rates<br /><br />Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry which addresses the question: "how fast do reactions go?" Chemistry can be thought of, at the simplest level, as the science that concerns itself with making new substances from other substances. Or, one could say, chemistry is taking molecules apart and putting the atoms and fragments back together to form new molecules. (OK, so once in a while one uses atoms or gets atoms, but that doesn't change the argument.) All of this is to say that chemical reactions are the core of chemistry.<br /><br />If Chemistry is making new substances out of old substances (i.e., chemical reactions), then there are two basic questions that must be answered:<br />1. Does the reaction want to go? This is the subject of chemical thermodynamics.<br />2. If the reaction wants to go, how fast will it go? This is the subject of chemical kinetics.Here are some examples. Consider the reaction,<br />2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l).We can calculate ΔrGo for this reaction from tables of free energies of formation (actually this one is just twice the free energy of formation of liquid water). We find that ΔrGo for this reaction is very large and negative, which means that the reaction wants to go very strongly. A more scientific way to say this would be to say that the equilibrium constant for this reaction is very very large.<br /><br />However, we can mix hydrogen gas and oxygen gas together in a bulb or other container, even in their correct stoichiometric proportions, and they will stay there for centuries, perhaps even forever, without reacting. (If we drop in a catalyst - say a tiny piece of platinum - or introduce a spark, or even illuminate the mixture with sufficiently high frequency uv light, or compress and heat the mixture, the mixture will explode.) The problem is not that the reactants do not want to form the products, they do, but they cannot find a "pathway" to get from reactants to products.<br />Another example: consider the reaction,<br />C(diamond) → C(graphite).<br />If you calculate ΔrGo for this reaction from data in the tables of thermodynamic properties you will find once again that it is negative (not very large, but still negative). This result tells us that diamonds are thermodynamically unstable. Yet diamonds are highly regarded as gem stones ("diamonds are forever") and are considered by some financial advisors as a good long-term investment hedge against inflation. On the other hand, if you were to vaporize a diamond in a furnace, under an inert atmosphere, and then condense the vapor, the carbon would come back as graphite and not as diamond.<br />How can all these things be?<br /><br />The answer is that thermodynamics is not the whole story in chemistry. Not only do we have to know whether a reaction is thermodynamically favored, we also have to know whether the reaction can or will proceed at a finite rate. The study of the rate of reactions is called chemical kinetics.<br /><div align="justify"><br />The study of chemical kinetics requires new definitions, new types of experimental data, and new theories and equations to organize the data. We begin with the definition of reaction rate. or will proceed at a finite rate. The study of the rate of reactions is called chemical kinetics.<br />The study of chemical kinetics requires new definitions, new types of experimental data, and new theories and equations to organize the data. We begin with the definition of reaction rate. </div>Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-85844346122400398962009-09-08T03:43:00.000-07:002009-09-08T03:43:16.019-07:00Uranium ChemistryUranium chemistry: the final frontier<br />
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13 August 2009<br />
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US scientists have synthesised complexes that could provide us with a new insight into the chemistry of uranium, with far reaching consequences for the nuclear industry and beyond. <br />
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Uranium azides could be used to make nitrides, which are particularly promising as advanced nuclear fuels <br />
Trevor Hayton and colleagues at the University of California, Santa Barbara, have made and isolated new uranium compounds containing an azide group, including uranium(V) azides. It is the first time, says Hayton, that uranium(V) azides have in fact been made. The team now hopes to harness the azide group's well-known reactivity to synthesise uranium nitride complexes. <br />
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Uranium nitride is a ceramic compound used as a nuclear fuel. NASA is interested in using it as a future fuel for nuclear reactors used in space exploration. The compounds have also received attention recently as potential fuels for the next-generation of nuclear power systems. Actinide nitrides are particularly promising as advanced nuclear fuels since they exhibit higher thermal conductivity and higher metal density compared with the oxides that are currently used. <br />
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Nitrides are a relatively rare functional group for uranium, says Hayton, and so few examples are available for scientists to study. He hopes, by using his new uranium azides, to carry out small-scale synthesis of uranium nitride and improve the understanding of its chemical properties. This would help scientists to predict its behaviour in nuclear waste and in the environment resulting in breakthroughs in waste processing and environmental remediation. <br />
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Uranium is also of great fundamental interest as it possesses chemical traits that are not found in any other element, says Hayton. These unique features may result in the development of novel catalytic reactivity. Many challenges remain in uranium chemistry and in actinide chemistry in general, adds Hayton, describing it as being 'the last frontier of the periodic table'. <br />
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Christopher Cummins, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, US, welcomes the work and says 'it elegantly unfurls a larger uranium(IV/V) coordination chemistry of azide as a nitrogen-rich pseudo-halide.' <br />
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Sarah CorcoranRobinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-25683469853501588422009-09-03T05:04:00.000-07:002009-09-03T05:06:28.101-07:00How to write Chemistry PapersHow to write Chemistry research papers, Term Papers & Thesis<br /><br />The vast majority of research papers and term papers in chemistry are written in ACS style which is the official style of the American Chemical Society. Some papers also follow the CSE/CBE Style although style varies according to the length and type of paper.<br /><br />Chemistry involves the study of the interaction between chemical substances which are made up of atoms. Atoms are combined to form ions, molecules as well as crystals. Chemistry is a fundamental part of the science curriculum at the early college level and is often called “general chemistry” and is intended to give a basic idea of the major concepts in chemistry that provide students with the necessary tools and skills.<br /><br />A research paper or term paper in chemistry is similar to any other college subject in that an author is required to define a clear definite purpose explaining why the research is being conducted, a proper thesis and a clearly referenced literature part. Additionally, a research or term paper in chemistry is expected to provide evidence supporting the thesis in the shape of graphs, tables as well as figures. In writing research papers in chemistry, the standard writing format is usually followed starting with an abstract followed by a introduction, explanation of the purpose of the paper, results obtained followed by discussion and conclusion parts. Experimental details should usually be avoided in these parts of the paper. Providing an accurate bibliography at the end of the paper is also important.<br /><br />Passive voice construction is generally the best tone to write a custom term paper unless your lecturer or supervisor provides instructions that ask otherwise. Abbreviations should be explained when they are first used in the paper and any tables or illustrations used in the paper should be referenced in-text. Acronyms and abbreviations should be explained the first time you use them while tables, graphs, and figures must be referenced in the text.<br /><br />When writing a chemistry paper, one thing that needs to be remembered is that the main purpose id to analyze the results and provide evidence on how the results correlate with the conclusions you present. The basic purpose of a paper is to convince the audience that the conclusions you provide are accurate and proven by research and experiments. It is worth examining a few articles and papers in chemistry and see how they are structured and presented.<br /><br />The subject is mostly concerned with the properties of atoms as well as the principles that govern their combinations and how knowledge regarding these properties is used to achieve desired results. Chemistry also involves the utilization various substances occurring naturally and also creation of artificial substances. Chemistry has been responsible for creating vinyl, Teflon, semiconductors, liquid crystals as well as superconductors. With the use of sophisticated tools, modern chemistry studies the behavior and properties of things at the atomic level and as complex as the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Over eight million natural and artificial substances different chemical substances have been identified to date.Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-38998993938767217022009-08-31T00:29:00.000-07:002009-08-31T00:29:46.124-07:00Chemistry in Action: The Physics and Chemistry Of Love<a href="http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/3-27-2004-52238.asp">http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/3-27-2004-52238.asp</a>Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-43599411740886909812009-08-31T00:19:00.000-07:002009-08-31T00:20:22.468-07:00The Physics and Chemistry Of LoveThe Physics and Chemistry of LoveLove, like all things bound to the universe, is non existent without some amount of physics and chemistry attached to it. As a scientist cynically pointed out, cupid’s arrows would never have been effective if they had not been first dipped in one unromantically named chemical- phenylethylamine.<br />Nor would the human body’s reaction have given us dramas like Romeo and Juliet, if oxytocin did not have its way. Together these two form the chemistry of love. The common symptoms of love, including sweaty palms, shaky knees and general restlessness, are caused by a natural chemical, Phenylethylamine (commonly dubbed the `love molecule'). Its release from the brain can be triggered from deceptively simple actions like the meeting of the eyes or touching of the hands. Heady emotions, racing pulses and heavy breathing results, and all these are (unfortunately) clinically explained as an overdose of this chemical. A very interesting thing is that chocolate is known to have very high level of this chemical…perhaps that’s the reason why it is considered a perfect gift for valentine. Or for your sweetheart. The latest discovery is the arrangement of molecules in this chemicals and the whole world is excited because now, like the witches of the yore, we can actually concoct love potions. In other words, mankind could be on its way to isolating the chemical compound and making drugs that can induce these reactions in us, in other words….you take the drug, and you fall in love with the next person you see. Imagine the chaos that the world will face. But the scientists say that as of now, this discovery will be used to find out how it can help in some other chemical reactions, to cure disease or other, more useful pursuits and research (though everyone agrees what can be more useful than making someone fall with in love you!!!!) At this point of time, research on the phenylethylamine molecule breakthrough could be extremely helpful in testing of chemicals related to mental illness. Parkinson’s disease could be one. So what are we left with? Explanations, but nothing is still in our hands. What we know about love is still largely out of our control. For instance, infatuation. This is supposedly the first stage of falling in love, an unbearable attraction towards someone. This attraction causes a virtual explosion of nuerochemicals very similar to adrenalin. Assisted by Phenylethylamine (that speeds up the flow of information between cells), dopamine (that makes us glow and feel good), and norepinephrine (that stimulates the production of adrenalin), make our world go round, our eyes sparkle and our heart beat faster. Our entire existence then depends on the sight of the person who triggered these reactions to begin with, and as the addiction to the chemical grows stronger, our attraction becomes greater. At this stage we commit foolish mistakes which are the stuff puppy love stories are made of. Actually it is these three chemicals that combine to give us what we call infatuation. We feel we are energized, often floating on air…and the reason why people who are just falling in love can talk for hours on end… (the same person becomes boring at a later stage). We can blame our chemicals for everything. We had a list of attributes ready for matching, but we just end up falling in love with the person who possesses none of them…it is , as they say, chemistry. Social obligations, other relationships, sense and sensibility, all take a back seat; our mind soars with these natural drugs. No wonder, a lover and a madman are said to be alike. Scientists also opine that this `clicking’ would be with a person with whom we can identify a parent-child situation. A person who, in our subconscious, will give us back something we feel we lost during our growing up years. For some it is security, for some others, it is warmth, and then others, just a spirit of adventure. This could be the reason why demure, well brought up girls usually fall for wastrels. This subconscious selection of mate gets our phenylethylamines and other chemicals moving. This period when our brain is awash with the love hormones lasts for different durations in different people, between six months to three years. In most of us, it settles down after that. For mercurial people, this high is missed and that’s the reason why they need another temporary high….another relationship, another chemical fix. If these love junkies stay married, they will need new relationships to keep their dope, and sometimes, bigger highs. hence bigger risks. In this world of chemical signals, humans are not scientifically considered monogamous; we do not fall under the 3% of the species that are monogamous. The species that stick to one mate usually have a rich flow of another chemical called vasopressin, the monogamy chemical. Experiments done with males injected with this chemical brought out all the evidence needed. Isolating males before and after mating showed that before mating, he was indifferent to all females. But 24 hours after mating, he is hooked for life. The jealous husband syndrome sets in too. Another interesting chemical is oxytoxin, the `cuddling ‘chemical. It promotes the need to be physically held, have close contact with he mate and makes both the sexes more caring. It can be released simply by a lover’s look, smell or even a fantasy. So much for the chemistry of infatuation. When infatuation subsides, another chemical takes over, which is responsible for intimate relationships. These chemicals are created by endorphins. They make a relationship steadier, intimate, dependable, warm and a great sharing experience. They do not induce a giddy high, but calmness and stability…hence are the reason why people stay married. The longer they are married, the longer two people stay together, because this chemical is addictive. It is endorphins that trigger grief on a spouse’s death or long separation, those yearnings for togetherness. The two types of attachments can be summed up as follows…adrenaline love is being in love with the idea of being in love. While endorphins, we like loving someone. So much for the magic of love and the realms written on it. It did come out of a bottle after all….and continues to afflict us….generations after generation.<br />By <a class="cap" href="http://www.buzzle.com/authors.asp?author=769">Kanika Goswami</a>Published: 3/27/2004Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-47246453604858498892009-08-31T00:04:00.000-07:002009-08-31T00:05:08.471-07:00Why We Love: The Nature and Chemistry of Romantic LoveWhy We Love: The Nature and Chemistry of Romantic LoveBased on Groundbreaking Research, a Renowned Anthropologist Sheds New Light on the Mysteries of Romantic Attraction. The experience of romantic love -- the elation, mood swings, sleeplessness, and obsession -- cuts across time, geography, and gender.<br />By Helen Fisher, Ph.D. Published by Henry Holt February 2004; $25.00US/$36.95CAN; 0-8050-6913-5 Based on Groundbreaking Research, a Renowned Anthropologist Sheds New Light on the Mysteries of Romantic Attraction. The experience of romantic love -- the elation, mood swings, sleeplessness, and obsession -- cuts across time, geography, and gender. Until now, our understanding of love has largely been shaped by the wisdom of poets, the anecdotes of the lovestruck, the observations of psychologists, and the musings of brokenhearted musicians. In Why We Love, Helen Fisher offers new insight into this universal phenomenon based on her innovative scientific research. Working with a team of scientists to scan the brains of people who had just fallen madly in love, Fisher and her colleagues proved at last what psychologists had only suspected: when you fall in love, specific areas of the brain "light up" with increased blood flow. Using this data, she concludes that romantic passion is, in fact, hardwired into our brains by millions of years of evolution. It is not an emotion; it is a drive as powerful as hunger. In this fascinating look at our most fundamental urge, Fisher reveals exactly what you experience when you fall in love, why you choose one person rather than another, and how romantic love biologically affects your sex drive and your feelings of attachment to a partner. She shows that all animals feel romantic attraction, that love at first sight comes out of nature, and that human romance evolved for reasons crucial to survival. She also discusses differences in the male and female brains, and what this means for the way we love. Last, she offers concrete suggestions on how to control this ancient passion, and she optimistically explores the future of romantic love in our modern chaotic world. Provocative, enlightening, and persuasive, Why We Love offers radical new answers to age-old questions: What is love? Why do we fall in love? And how can we keep love alive? Author Helen Fisher, Ph.D., is one of this country's most prominent anthropologists. Prior to becoming a research professor at Rutgers University, she was a research associate at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Dr. Fisher has conducted extensive research on the evolution, expression, and chemistry of love. Her two most recent books, The First Sex and Anatomy of Love, were New York Times Notable Books. She grew up in Connecticut and lives in New York City. For more information, please visit <a href="http://www.writtenvoices.com/titlepage.asp?ISBN=0805069135">www.writtenvoices.com</a> Reviews "The most comprehensive and comprehensible account I have ever read of the brain chemistry of attachment. Read it and learn some of the most important lessons anyone can achieve: how and why we -- and other living things -- love." --David P. Barash, professor of psychology, University of Washington, author of The Survival Game and The Myth of Monogamy "A fascinating tour of the science and art of love. Helen Fisher takes the reader on an unforgettable journey through the human passions and how they lead to the most euphoric highs and the most anguished lows. From sage poets to brain scans, Why We Love provides the most gripping and scientifically sound book yet written about this most bafflingly complex human experience." --David M. Buss, author of The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating "Why We Love is an amazing and wonderful book. Using original neurophysiological research, surveying the literatures of the world, investigating tribal communities, compiling psychological data and many other resources, and writing in accessible language, Dr. Fisher provides a definitive answer to the question of questions. I could not put it down. It will become a basic reference and a classic." --Harville Hendrix, author of Getting the Love You Want "If you want flashes and particular experiences of romantic love, read novels. If you want to understand this central quality of human nature to its roots, read Why We Love." --E. O. Wilson, university research professor emeritus, Harvard University, author of Consilience Excerpt The following is an excerpt from the book Why We Love: The Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love by Helen Fisher, Ph.D. Published by Henry Holt; February 2004; $25.00US/$36.95CAN; 0-8050-6913-5 Copyright © 2004 Helen E. Fisher I "What Wild Ecstasy": Being In Love The world, for me, and all the world can hold Is circled by your arms; for me there lies, Within the lights and shadows of your eyes, The only beauty that is never old. James Weldon Johnson "Beauty That Is Never Old" "Fires run through my body -- the pain of loving you. Pain runs through my body with the fires of my love for you. Sickness wanders my body with my love for you. Pain like a boil about to burst with my love for you. Consumed by fire with my love for you. I remember what you said to me. I am thinking of your love for me. I am torn by your love for me. Pain and more pain. Where are you going with my love? I'm told you will go from here. I am told you will leave me here. My body is numb with grief. Remember what I've said, my love. Goodbye, my love, goodbye." So spoke an anonymous Kwakiutl Indian of southern Alaska in this wrenching poem, transcribed from the native tongue in 1896. How many men and women have loved each other in all the seasons that preceded you and me? How many of their dreams have been fulfilled; how many of their passions wasted? Often as I walk or sit and contemplate, I wonder at all the heartrending love affairs this planet has absorbed. Fortunately, men and women around the world have left us a great deal of evidence of their romantic lives. From Uruk, in ancient Sumer, come poems on cuneiform tablets that hail the passion of Inanna, Queen of Sumeria, for Dumuzi, a shepherd boy. "My beloved, the delight of my eyes," Inanna cried to him over four thousand years ago. Vedic and other Indian texts, the earliest dating between 1000 and 700 B.C., tell of Shiva, the mythic Lord of the Universe, who was infatuated with Sati, a young Indian girl. The god mused that "he saw Sati and himself on a mountain pinnacle / enlaced in love." For some, happiness would never come. Such was Qays, the son of a tribal chieftain in ancient Arabia. An Arabic legend, dating to the seventh century A.D., has it that Qays was a beautiful, brilliant boy -- until he met Layla, meaning "night" for her jet black hair. So intoxicated was Qays that one day he sprang from his school chair to race through the streets shouting out her name. Henceforth he was known as Majnun, or madman. Soon Majnun began to drift with the desert sand, living in caves with the animals, singing verses to his beloved, while Layla, cloistered in her father's tent, slipped out at night to toss love notes to the wind. Sympathetic passersby would bring these appeals to the wild-haired, almost-naked poet boy. Their mutual passion would eventually lead to war between their tribes -- and death to the lovers. Only this legend remains. Meilan also lived by dying. In the twelfth century A.D. Chinese fable "The Jade Goddess," Meilan was the pampered fifteen-year-old daughter of a high official in Kaifeng -- until she fell in love with Chang Po, a vivacious lad with long tapered fingers and a gift for carving jade. "Since the heaven and earth were created, you were made for me and I was made for you and I will not let you go," Chang Po declared to Meilan one morning in her family's garden. These lovers were of different classes in China's rigid, hierarchical social order, however. Desperate, they eloped -- then were soon discovered. He escaped. She was buried alive in her father's garden. But the tale of Meilan still haunts the souls of many Chinese. Romeo and Juliet, Paris and Helen, Orpheus and Eurydice, Abelard and Eloise, Troilus and Cressida, Tristan and Iseult: thousands of romantic poems, songs, and stories come across the centuries from ancestral Europe, as well as the Middle East, Japan, China, India, and every other society that has left written records. Even where people have no written documents, they have left evidence of this passion. In fact, in a survey of 166 varied cultures, anthropologists found evidence of romantic love in 147, almost 90 percent of them. In the remaining 19 societies, scientists had simply failed to examine this aspect of people's lives. But from Siberia to the Australian Outback to the Amazon, people sing love songs, compose love poems, and recount myths and legends of romantic love. Many perform love magic -- carrying amulets and charms or serving condiments or concoctions to stimulate romantic ardor. Many elope. And many suffer deeply from unrequited love. Some kill their lovers. Some kill themselves. Many sink into a sorrow so profound that they can hardly eat or sleep. From reading the poems, songs, and stories of people around the world, I came to believe that the capacity for romantic love is woven firmly into the fabric of the human brain. Romantic love is a universal human experience. What is this volatile, often uncontrollable feeling that hijacks the mind, bringing bliss one moment, despair the next? The Love Survey "O tell me the truth about love," exclaimed poet W. H. Auden. To understand what this profound human experience actually entails, I canvassed the psychological literature on romantic love, culling those traits, symptoms, or conditions that were mentioned repeatedly. Not surprising, this potent feeling is a complex of many specific traits. Then, to satisfy myself that these characteristics of romantic passion are universal, I used them as the basis for a questionnaire I designed on romantic love. And with the assistance of Michelle Cristiani, then a graduate student at Rutgers University, as well as Dr. Mariko Hasagawa and Dr. Toshikazu Hasagawa at the University of Tokyo, I distributed this survey among men and women at and around Rutgers University in New Jersey and the University of Tokyo. The poll began: "This questionnaire is about 'being in love,' the feelings of being infatuated, being passionate, or being strongly romantically attracted to someone. "If you are not currently 'in love' with someone, but felt very passionately about someone in the past, please answer the questions with that person in mind." Participants were then asked several demographic questions, covering age, financial background, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and marital status. I also asked questions about their love affairs. Among them: "How long have you been in love?" "About what percent of an average day does this person come into your thoughts?" And "Do you sometimes feel as if your feelings are out of your control?" Then came the body of the questionnaire (see the Appendix). It contained fifty-four statements, such as: "I have more energy when I am with ____." "My heart races when I hear ____'s voice on the phone." And "When I'm in class/at work my mind wanders to ____." I designed all these questions to reflect the characteristics most commonly associated with romantic love. Subjects were required to indicate to what extent they agreed with each query on a seven-point scale from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." A total of 437 Americans and 402 Japanese filled out the questionnaire. Then statisticians MacGregor Suzuki and Tony Oliva assembled all these data and did a statistical analysis. The results were astonishing. Age, gender, sexual orientation, religious affiliation, ethnic group: none of these human variables made much difference in the responses. For example, people of different age groups answered with no significant statistical differences on 82 percent of the statements. People over age forty-five reported being just as passionate about their loved one as those under age twenty-five. Heterosexuals and homosexuals gave similar responses on 86 percent of the questions. On 87 percent of the queries, American men and women responded virtually alike: there were few gender differences. American "whites" and "others" responded similarly on 82 percent of the questions: race played almost no role in romantic zeal. Catholics and Protestants showed no significant variance on 89 percent of the statements: church affiliation was not a factor. And where these groups did show "statistically significant" differences in their responses, one group was usually just a little more passionate than the other. The greatest differences were between the Americans and the Japanese. On most of the forty-three questions where they showed statistically significant variations, one nationality simply expressed somewhat greater romantic passion. And the twelve questions showing dramatic differences all appeared to have rather obvious cultural explanations. For example, only 24 percent of Americans agreed with the statement, "When I am talking to ____, I am often afraid that I will say the wrong thing," whereas a whopping 65 percent of Japanese agreed with this declaration. I suspect this particular variation occurred because young Japanese often have fewer and more formal relations with the opposite sex than Americans do. So, all things considered, within these two very different societies, men and women were much alike in their feelings of romantic passion. *endnotes have been omitted Copyright © 2004 Helen E. Fisher For more information, please visit <a href="http://www.writtenvoices.com/titlepage.asp?ISBN=0805069135">www.writtenvoices.com</a><br />By Buzzle Staff and AgenciesPublished: 1/30/2004Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-34429366718286935432009-08-31T00:03:00.000-07:002009-08-31T00:03:02.652-07:00Chemistry in Action: Types Of Chemical Reactions<a href="http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-chemical-reactions.html">http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-chemical-reactions.html</a>Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-57217722758900021162009-08-30T23:52:00.000-07:002009-08-30T23:53:40.101-07:00How to Stop Being ShyHow to Stop Being Shy<br />Do you think that you are unable to enjoy good things in life just because you are shy? It's time you set yourself free and stop being shy. In this article we provide you with some suggestions on how to stop being shy. All of us deserve to be able to enjoy life without being bothered about anything. However, those who are shy hold themselves back from doing so. If you really want to stop being shy, it is very important that you come out of your shell and try to be yourself. You have to make an effort from your side to meet new people. By sitting at home or in a secluded place you cannot expect people to come and befriend you. You have to have an attitude of positive thinking and go out towards other. <br /><br />Ways on How to Stop Being Shy? <br /><br />For an introvert person, shyness can be an inherent personality trait. However, it can be reduced to some extent by taking certain steps. Here, we have discussed them in detail. <br /><br />Improve your Self-esteem <br />Try to figure out the root cause of your shyness. Basically, there are two major reasons that make a person shy. One, they are extremely self conscious about themselves. As a result, they tend to put a lot attention on whether they are behaving in the right manner or not. Two, they have a tendency to have a negative attitude about themselves. They tend to feel that there is nothing interesting about themselves, and are not worth anyone's attention. Both these factors make them very nervous and they withdraw themselves in a cocoon. All of us have our own set of strengths and weaknesses. Understand your strong points and keep your focus on them. Accept the fact that there is nothing wrong to be different, and make sure you appreciate yourself the way you are. Spend some more time in improving your physical appearance. It makes a lot of difference in your self confidence. When you look at yourself in the mirror and feel good about yourself, then you can feel more confident about yourself while approaching a person, known or unknown. <br /><br />Practice Conversation <br />There is an old saying that practice makes a man perfect. As you are a shy person, you are aware that you are not good in conversations with people, but you can make it better by practicing more and more. To start with, stand in front of the mirror, think of a subject on which you can speak comfortably and practice speaking to yourself. It may sound really silly, but it works. Then take the help of a good friend who can help you in this regard. Both of you can role-play to make yourself easier with conversation. Then go out and meet strangers and strike a conversation. Initially, you can approach people in some quiet places, book stores or coffee shop, as they will be easily approachable than people who are in a loud party. Observe others who are good conversation starters. It could be one of your friend or a stranger in the party. Now you are ready to go to crowded places with friends. Approach any such person who is standing aloof in the crowd. A one-on-one conversation is much easier than speaking in a group. Once you start a conversation, you will find your nervousness is gone. As you meet more and more people, you can ascertain the kind of people you are comfortable with. <br /><br />Learn to Relax <br />Those who are shy find it very difficult to communicate with others as they feel anxiety and a lot of discomfort in doing so. They often have a hidden fear that they may speak something really stupid and will get humiliated. They often fail to decide what to say. You can overcome the fear of rejection by preparing your mind for the worst possible consequences. If you are ignored by someone, do not take it personally. Move on and you will find more interesting people in your life. In a large crowd, if you feel that the shyness is taking control of your senses, shift your attention on other things around you. This will prevent you from being self conscious. <br /><br />Anxiety and fear are emotions that are difficult to suppress. The most simple method to get rid of anxiety is to learn the techniques of relaxation. Close your eyes and focus all your attention on your breathing. Keep the rhythm of breathing slow and after sometime, you will find that all your anxious thoughts are gone. Practice of yoga and meditation can also help you in controlling the anxiousness forever. Other exercises such as walking and jogging also helps in refreshing the mind and release of tension. <br /><br />You should stop being shy of meeting people and start conversation with them. It is also very essential for achieving your personal goals and flourishing in life. It can help you to bring out your hidden talent that lies within you. <br />By Bidisha Mukherjee<br />Published: 8/28/2009Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-87151477188655685292009-08-30T22:25:00.000-07:002009-08-30T22:26:22.723-07:00Msc Programme Chemistry I T.U.The structure of the course for the Master's degree will be as follows:<br /><br />Subjects Course Number Full Marks Pass Marks<br />Inoraganic Chemistry Chem 511 100 40<br />Physical Chemistry Chem 512 100 40<br />Organic chemistry Chem 513 100 40 <br />Research Methodology Chem 514 100 40 <br />Inorganic Chemistry Practical Chem 515 100 40<br />Physical Chemestry Practical Chem 516 100 40<br />Organic chemistry Practical Chem 517 100 40<br /> <br />#Submission of a term paper in research methodology course is a prerequisite to appear in the first year final examinationRobinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-67226994065045848022009-08-30T22:05:00.000-07:002009-08-30T22:05:11.748-07:00syllabus<a href="http://chemochemistry.blogspot.com/2009/08/chemistry-syllabus-of-msc-1-tu.html#links">Chemistry: Chemistry: Syllabus of MSc 1 T..U</a>Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-71485449629987952172009-08-30T21:34:00.000-07:002009-09-13T04:53:06.910-07:00Organic ChemistryRobinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7645075329016038225.post-14264803701987934542009-08-28T06:50:00.000-07:002009-09-13T04:56:12.366-07:00Term PaperWhen writing a term paper you should not dilly dally on the introduction to make it more than half the length of your essay. The introduction should be to the point and should tell the reader enough background on what the term paper is all about and why you choose to study it. The rest of the paper will describe what tests and other experiments you conducted and what tools you used to carry out these tests and experiments. Please remember that when you are giving the description your laboratory apparatuses be sure that you are specific with the make and measurement. This is because the person checking your paper will be very critical while checking your paper and will not hesitate to show you your mistakes.<br />The rest of the paper will be about describing what you observed from the tests and what these tests prove to you. You should also explain who will benefit from these tests and under what conditions in which they should be performed. There are many experiments that are to be conducted under strict supervision. Be careful not to interlace topic headings with each other. When you are talking about the experiment you should not talk about results and vice versa.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Taken from:<a href="http://www.howtowritetermpapers.com/chemistry.htm">http://www.howtowritetermpapers.com/chemistry.htm</a>Robinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00161086013229950620noreply@blogger.com0